A Brief Review on Pharmacological Profile of Zingiber officinale

Introduction

Herbs are plants that are used in a variety of ways including cooking, religious, ritual and medicinal items. In botany herbs are described as plant growing seed with non-woody stems that weather and die back to the ground after growth in the season. Herbs are a source of pharmacologically active substance that affects the living organism in terms of health use. Herbal products can be used as a both food and drug.¹

Ginger, is one of the most widely used species of the ginger family (Zingiberaceae), botanically known as Zingiber officinale. It is commonly used for various foods and beverages. Since 2,500 years it has been medicinally used in China and India, specifically for colds, headaches, nausea and rheumatism. Ginger is native to South Asia but is now widely grown in Jamaica, Nigeria, China, India, Fiji, Sierra Leone and Australia.²

SYNONYMS

Ginger: English, Sheng jiang: Chinese,sutho: Nepali,Gemeiner/ ingwer: German, Gingembre: French,Jahe: Indonesia,Khing: Thai,Saenggang: Korean,Shokyo: Japanese, Katubhadra/Srngavera: Sanskrit, Adarakha: Hindi, Ada: Bengali, Adi/ Adrak: Punjabi, Adrak: Urdu, Ada/ Adrak/ Sonth: Assamese, Adu/ Aale/ Alem/ Adrak/ Sonth/ Sunta/Sunt: Marathi, Adu, adhu, Sunt: Gujarati, Ingiver/ Chukku: Gujarati, Inchi/ Chukku: Malayalam, Allam/ Sonthi: Telugu, Sunthi/ Hasisunthi/ Vana/ sunthi: Kannada.^3,4

PROPAGATION

The propagation of ginger is done by small portions of the rhizomes which are also called as seed rhizomes. The rate of seed rhizomes varies from 900 to 1400 kg / ha. In some HP areas, a higher rate of seed rhizomes at 2250-2750 kg / ha has been found to give better results. According to CPCRI the recommended seed rate for Kerala is 1500-1800 kg / ha. Ginger needs a dry, humid atmosphere. The plant thrives well in the Himalayas from sea level to an altitude of 1500 m; the maximum elevation is 300 and 900 m. A well distributed rainfall (150-300 cm) is needed for large-scale cultivation of the crop during growing season and dry spells during land preparations and before harvesting. It can be grown on a wide range of well-drained soils of at least 30 cm depth; it is found to be suitable for the crop for heavy literite loam of Anantapur (A P), red literite of Kottayam and Malabar regions, and clayey-loam of Wynad (Kerala). It is grown on fertile, black and clayy soils in Maharashtra, Karnataka and AP tank irrigation.⁵

TAXONOMICAL POSITION

Taxonomical position

Kingdom: Plantae

Division: Magnoliophytes Class: Liliopsida

Order: Zingiberales Family: Zingiberaceae

Genus: Zingiber

Species: Zingiber officinale var. Roscoe.³

Botanical description

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae) is widely used around the world as a spice in foods. Ginger is popularly used as a spice and it has also many traditional uses.⁶

The ginger plant is an herbaceous perennial crop. It is also an annual crop.The plant is upright, has many fibrous stems, pseudo stem (aerial shoots) with leaves, and underground stem (rhizome). The ginger roots are of two types: fibrous and fleshy.³ Picture of Ginger is given in Figure 1.

Roots

These fibrous roots are small, have root hairs and their function is primarily water and nutrient absorption. As a ginger plant develops further, the lower nodes of the mother ginger and primary fingers develop many fleshy roots of indeterminate growth. Thicker, milky white in colour, these roots have few root hairs,and no lateral roots. These roots are also helps in support and absorption.⁴ (Figure 2)

Leaves

The ginger leaf have an elliptical–lanceolate blade, apart from a leaf sheath and a ligule. The length of the leaf sheath is approximately 15 to 18 cm, whereas lamina is approximately 12 to 15 cm long. The internode is encircled by the sheathjust above the point of insertion; the sheath is longitudinally open from the side opposite to its origin up to the ligule. A distinct mid rib is present only in the lamina. The pattern of distribution and arrangement of scale leaves on the rhizome as well as on the foliage leaves on the aerial stem is distichous, where the angle of divergence is 180°. Within the bud, leaves have imbricate aestivation.^3,4(Figure 3)

Shoots

The aerial shoots have many narrow leaves borne on very short petioles and with long and narrow sheaths, and the aerial shoot is formed by overlapping sheaths. The first branch is develop from the apical bud which is also an main axis. It contains 7 to 15 nodes which later becomes an aerial shoot. When that axis is aerial, the resulting rhizome growth is due to the development of the axillary buds over the first two to three nodes of the main underground axis.⁷ Picture of Ginger shoot is given in Figure 4.

Rhizomes

Ginger is a subterranean stem (rhizome) modified for the storage of food materials and vegetative propagation. The stem has nodes with leaves and internodes on a size. The nodes all have axillary buds except for the first few nodes. The number of nodes varies for each branch of the rhizome. Mother rhizome (main axis) and subsequent branches (primaries) have 6 to 15 nodes. The rhizome branches' internodal length ranges from 0.1 to 1.5 cm, and differs even within a single branch. Theinter nodal length consists of three to seven centimeters.^3,4 Picture of Ginger shoot is given in Figure 5.

Phytochemistry

Z. Officinale rhizome contains 1–4% essential oil and oleoresin, but its main constituent is sesquiterpene (53.57%). The Ginger rhizome contains gingerol has the maine pungent agent. Along with the gingerol it contains gingerol analogues such as shogaols, paradol, and zingerone at high levels. The major pharmacological activity of ginger appears to be due to gingerol and shogaol. Phenyl alkyl ketones or vanillyl ketones of ginger include 6-gingerol 8- gingerol and 10-gingerol, 6-shogaol, 8- shogaol, 10-shogaol and zingerone.6- and 10- dehydrogingerdione,6-paradol and 6- and 10- gingerdione also found in ginger rhizome.^6,8 The gingerols is the primary active constituents, 5-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxy phenyl) decan-3-one is the most abundant in this constituent. Some other active compounds are mono- and sesquiterpenes; camphene, beta-phellandrene, curcumin, cineole, geranyl acetate, terpineol terpenes, borneol, geraniol, limonene, linalool, alpha-zingiberene (30%-70%), sesquiphellandrene (15%-20%), beta-bisabolene (10%-15%) and alpha-farmesene. The bulb is commonly used for gingerol, ethanol as an active chemical compound. It also containsamadaldehyde, paradols, ginger diols, ginger diacetates, gingerliness, 6- ginger sulfonic acid, gingerenones.^3,9

TRADITIONAL USES

Ginger is a very common spice used throughout the world; whether used to spice up foods, or as a medicine, the demand for ginger has been constant throughout history. Ginger may be used for a range of food products or medicines such as fruits, sweets, candy, pickles and alcoholic beverages.^{10, 11}

Ginger is an enticing flavor to the kitchen. On several dishes, they are sometimes pickled as a snack on vinegar or sherry, or baked as an ingredient. They can be steeped in boiling water to make herbal tea from ginger. Ginger can be turned into dumplings. Ginger juice is sometimes used in India as a seasoning and is a popular ingredient in Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Vietnamese and many South Asian cuisines for flavouring dishes such as seafood, meat and vegetarian dishes.^{6, 11}

Although the flavors of fresh and dried ginger are somewhat different, fresh ginger can be substituted for ground ginger at a ratio of six to one. Gingerbread, cookies, cakes, ginger ale and ginger beer are prepared from powdered dry ginger root.Candied ginger, called in the UK, or crystallized ginger, the root, cooked in sugar until soft, is a form of confectionery, as the "stems ginger" You should peel fresh ginger before eating. The ginger can be put in a plastic bag for long-term storage, and refrigerated or frozen.^{8, 11} 

PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIONS

Anti-cancer activity

Ginger's anticancer effects are thought to be due to various constituents like valloniid, viz. (6)-gingerol and (6)-shogaol paradol, zingerone and Galanals A and B. Galanals A and B were found to be active apoptosis inducers of Jurkat cells of human T lymphoma.¹¹

Anticoagulant activity

The studies have shown that, Ginger has the ability to decrease platelet thromboxane production and to inhibit platelet aggregation in in vitro condition. The maine constituents which exhibited antiplatelet activities are (8) -Gingerol, (8)-shogaol, (8)-paradol, and gingerol analogues (1 and 5). But, its effects in vivo have not studied yet. The decrease in platelet aggregation was found by Verma et al. Bordia et al. found ginger to have no effect on platelet aggregation, fibrinolytic activity, or fibrinogen levels. Janssen et al. showed no effect of oral ginger on platelet thromboxane B2 production, while Srivastava found thromboxane levels to be decreased by ginger ingestion in a small study.¹²

Antiemetic effect

Gingerols, shogaols, and galanolactone, a diterpenoid of ginger, are believed to be the components in ginger responsible for the antiemetic effect. Recent animal models and in vitro studies have shown that ginger extract has anti-serotoninergic and 5-HT3 antagonism receptor effects that play an important role in postoperative nausea and vomiting etiology.It appears unlikely that ginger's anti-emetic or anti-nausea effects are mediated through increased gastro duodenal motility or through increased gastric emptying. But, ginger had no significant effect in the corpus or antrum, except for a significant decrease in the amplitude of antral contractions during phase II of the MMC.⁶

Anti-Inflammatory Property

As an anti-inflammatory, Ginger has a long history of use and many of its constituents have been reported as having anti-inflammatory properties. Ginger was found to inhibit prostaglandin biosynthesis and to interact with the vanilloid nociceptor and the inflammatory cascade. Ginger has been shown to share pharmacological properties with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory cascade. Ginger has been shown to share pharmacological properties with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) because by cyclooxygenase-1 and cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition, it suppresses prostaglandin synthesis. However, based on its ability to suppress leukotriene biosynthesis by inhibiting 5-lipoxygenase, ginger can be distinguished from NSAIDs. It was also discovered that a ginger extract derived from Zingiber officinale (and Alpina galangal) inhibits the induction of several genes involved in the inflammatory response, including genes encoding cytokines, chemokines, and the inducible enzyme cyclooxygenase-2. The first proof that ginger modulates the biochemical pathways activated in chronic inflammation was produced by this discovery. The discovery of the molecular targets of the individual constituents of ginger offers an opportunity to refine and standardize the effects of ginger products on particular inflammation biomarkers.¹²

Antinociceptive Effects

(6)-shogaol induced anti-nociception and inhibited the release of substance P in rats, apparently via the same receptor to which it binds to capsaicin. However it was found to be 100 times less potent and to elicit half of the maximum capsaicin effect.⁶

Antioxidant activity

Ginger has been demonstrated to show antioxidant effects in vitro. The antioxidant component present in ginger appears to be (6)-gingerol, as it has been shown to protect HL-60 cells from oxidative stress. Ginger oil has H2O2-induced dominative protective effects on DNA damage. Ginger oil could act as a radical oxygen scavenger and could be used as an antioxidant.¹¹

Cardiovascular Effects

In vitro studies suggest that gingerols and associated shogaols demonstrate low-dose cardio-depressant activity and higher-dose cardiotonic properties. Both (6)-shogaoland (6)-gingerol, and the gingerdione, are reportedly potent enzymatic inhibitors of prostaglandin, thromboxane, and leukotriene biosynthesis.⁶

Antimicrobial activity

Ginger has shown excellent antimicrobial properties due to phenolic compounds and has been effective in combating viruses, bacteria, and fungal diseases. Ginger is used for preserving food in many countries.¹³

Antiviral activity

Ginger has shown an antiviral effect, but to demonstrate efficacy, more published literature is needed.¹³

Antibacterial activity

Ginger showed a strong antimicrobial activity against both Gram positive and negative bacteria, but due to heating, this effect is severely reduced.¹⁴

Antifungal activity

Gingerols and Gingerdiol are the main anti-fungal principles and extract of ginger powder is effective against several antifungal diseases.¹⁴

Antiparasitic action

Ginger is anti-parasitic; research demonstrates the in vivo ability of methanolic extract. In the treatment of Trypanosomiasis, Zingiber officinale. ¹⁵

Antidiabetic activity

An in vitro experiment resulted in both 6-shogaol and 6-gingerol preventing the progression of diabetic complications, and they inhibited the production of AGEs by trapping methylglyoxal (MGO), the precursor of AGEs. Additionally, in mice with high-fat diet-induced obesity, 6-gingerol decreased plasma glucose and insulin levels. A marker of AGEs, N'-carboxymethyl- lysine (CML), was decreased by 6-gingerol by activation of Nrf2. In 3T3-L1 adipocytes and C2C12 myotubes, 6-paradol and 6-shogaol encouraged the use of glucose by increasing phosphorylation of AMPK. In addition, 6-paradol significantly lowered the blood glucose level in a mouse model fed a high-fat diet. In another study, 6- gingerol facilitated glucose-stimulated insulin secretion and ameliorated glucose tolerance in type 2 diabetic mice by increasing glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1).¹⁶

Antiarthritic effect

The antiarthritic effects of ginger and its bioactive constituents were investigated in a study. A well characterized crude ginger extract was compared to a fraction containing [6]-gingerol and its derivatives to prevent joint swelling in an animal model of rheumatoid arthritis, streptococcal cell arthritis caused by the wall. These extracts have had anti-inflammatory effect. The crude dichloromethane extract, which contains essential oils and more polar compounds, was more effective in preventing both joint inflammation and degradation when normalized to [6]-gingerol content. Components of Non-gingerol improve the antiarthritic activity of the more commonly known [6]-gingerol.¹⁷

Immunomodulatory activity

In vitro evidence indicates that ginger has Immuno-modulatory effects and is an effective antimicrobial and antiviral agent.¹⁷

Hypolipidemic activity

Hypocholesterolemic, hypolipidemic, and antiatheroscler-otic effects of buccal ingestion of ginger extract have been demonstrated in cholesterol-fed rabbits and in rats. Apo lipoprotein E-deficient mice also showed inhibition of LDL oxidation and attenuated production of atherosclerosis.¹⁷

Effect on weight loss

Spiced foods or herbal beverages like those containing ginger can have major effects on metabolic targets such as satiety, thermogenesis, and fat oxidation. Often a significant clinical result can seem straight forward but it often relies too heavily on the subjects being completely complied with thermogenic ingredients, such as ginger, may be considered as functional agents that could help restore a "positive energy balance" and prevent obesity.¹⁷

Hypotensive effect

There are several reports that show ginger's hypotensive effect when administered at 0.3-3 mg/kg.It helps to reduce atrial blood pressure by blocking calcium channel or by acting on muscarinic receptor.¹⁷

Effect on morning sickness

FDA classifies ginger as safe for morning sickness care, and is commonly used in early pregnancy. This eliminates morning sickness symptoms if the same is taken in the prescribed number. Because of the lack of published data, the German Commission and Europe do not find this as free.¹⁷

Conclusion

The present review article is based on current and past researches carried out on the therapeutic effect of ginger for various indications. Ginger is a well-known in all over the world, because of its vast and numerous pharmacological benefits, it was found that ginger is useful in many acute and chronic conditions such as nausea, vomiting, menstrual cramp, reducing gas, joint pain, asthma, congestive conditions, and as an aphrodisiac. This review is focused on the various health benefits of Ginger.